Editing throughout History
Timeline:
George Albert Smith: Was an English Hypnotist and film
pioneer, one of his most famous pieces was ‘A Kiss In The Tunnel (1899)’. This
is one of the first known edited films. It had two single straight cuts, it
starts and ends with footage from the front of the train driving into and out
of a tunnel. And in between these shots is a scene where a couple kiss
eachother. This was a huge step in the editing front of the film industry as it
essentially introduced the ability to add more diversity and length to films.
George Melies: Was a French illusionist and film director, he
worked on such pieces as ‘A Trip To The Moon (1902)’ and ‘The Impossible Voyage(1904)’, in his works he combined both real life and animation. This was done
in A Trip To The Moon with the moon itself, he gave it a face and had a bullet,
which was the transport for the people to get to the moon with. This
combination was very rare back in the early 1900’s. In this film he used illusions
which were very revolutionary and unseen at the time, these were the puffs of
smoke that the aliens turned into when they were hit. This is a style of
editing, it was an invisible jump cut that more than often goes unnoticed. This
was a big step in the editing front as it proved that there was more to editing
than cuts from scene to scene.
Edwin S Porter: Was an American director and film pioneer, he
was the chief of production at the Edison Studio working under Thomas Edison.
He worked on such pieces as ‘The Life Of An American Fireman (1903)’ and ‘TheGreat Train Robbery (1903)’ which were direct rip offs of George Albert Smith’s
films of the same stories. Despite these being ripoffs, they did involve more
advanced editing, for instance in The Great Train Robbery there’s a cross cut,
parallel editing and the now usual straight cut. This is obviously a fair
amount of different editing types for a film made in the early 1900’s.
Lumiere Brothers: Were two brothers from France, they devised
an early motion-picture camera and a projector they called the Cinematographe.
As well as this, they also showed a moving image piece for the first time to a
public audience, this film was simply a short piece of footage of a train
pulling up to a station (The arrival of the train), this was a huge step in the
right direction for the film industry, as it introduced it to ordinary people.
A1 – Types
and Purposes of editing for film and television
Types of editing for film and television
Continuity Editing: Is considered the ‘Classic Hollywood
style of editing’, it is a seamless type of edit that smooths over the inherent
discontinuity of the editing process and establishes logical coherence between
shots, for instance eye-line match and 180 degree rule. It’s used to maintain
continuous and clear narrative action by following these rules and more.
Non-Continuity Editing: Is when shots are mismatched to
disrupt the impression of time and space. This makes the editing somewhat more
obvious and disturbs the illusion of reality. Flashbacks and montages are often
good examples of non-continuity editing. This style of editing was made popular
in the 1950’s to 60’s by Jean Luc Godard and Francois Truffaut during the
French New Wave of cinema. Jump cuts are a style of this type of editing, this
is when a gap in the action is present. The 180 degree rule which is a common
continuity editing rule, is often broken as part of non-continuity, as opposed
to constantly having the characters on the same side of the screen as seen in
continuity editing, the camera may be flipped to the other side of the action
meaning the characters will suddenly be on the other side of the screen from
before. This creates a startling effect and can convey the feeling that
something is going wrong and almost disorientate viewers.
Purposes Of Editing For Film And Television
Within manipulation of time, there are multiple ways of doing
this. Speeding up and slowing down footage for example, these techniques are
used for multiple purposes. For example in Wanted (2008) when Morgan Freeman is
shot in the head. Just before the bullet exits the front of his head there is
slow motion, right up to when the bullet has re-entered the gun, this is to put
emphasis on his death and the bullet itself, it also helps us establish the
bullets journey from the gun to the head. As for speeding up time, a good
example of this is in City Of God, towards the end of the opening scene we see
Rocket in the middle of the street and the camera spins around him in a 360
degree circle in fast motion and transition to him at a younger age standing in
the middle of a football pitch. This example shows how speeding up time can be
used to change setting and time. Usually it is used to show a passage in time,
however this seems to go back in time. When it comes to time compression, there
are many ways this is achievable, whether it be a time lapse, time remapping,
using B-roll footage, fades, etc. Each of these either imply a passage of time
(B-roll and fade) or show the entire process but in a way that isn’t drawn out
and long (specifically the time lapse and time remapping). The opposite of this
is stretching time, this is when scenes need stretching/making longer.
There are also other purposes for editing, flashbacks/flash
forwards for instance, in a lot of murder mystery films there are flashbacks,
these often occur when the detective comes to a realisation and multiple
flashbacks occur to previous clues we saw earlier and they’re pieced together
revealing both the murderer and the way they died. Another example of flashbacks
is when characters are talking about the past/their past and we see flashbacks
to the past they’re talking about, the Halloween scene in Charlie And TheChocolate factory is a good example of a character (Dr Wonka) talking about
their past and it being seen on screen. As for flash forwards, these are often
used to show the future, this only usually happens when a mythical, or
technologically advanced person/thing is on screen as they typically have the
ability to see the future in films/series’. Another time flash forwards are
used is when a character is predicting/planning upcoming events, for example
this clip in Sherlock (2010) shows Sherlock planning his attack plan in the
ring fight. It’s used to show his ability to predict very accurately.
Moving on from flashback and flash forwards, there’s also
means of editing that essentially control the perception of space to create a
logical/believable space between characters/objects who aren’t sharing the same
shot. First of all this can be done by having one scene/shot cut to another,
and we can assume these two shots are related/in the same vicinity, thus
imitating that this space is somewhat big enough for two shots, or perhaps even
more. Different shot types are also prevalent in creating this perception of
space. For instance if the shots in the location are all close and have tight
framing it’ll imply that the location is very close quartered and claustrophobic.
Likewise, if the shots are all long/wide shots and perhaps even have large depths
of field the location will seem much larger and more open.
Editing can also be used to control rhythm and pace to
control the flow. This usually works in two ways. The first way is very quick cuts,
this is done to imitate a sense of rush and fast-paced action. These are often
used in action movies during fight scenes, car chases, etc. Edgar Wright is
very well known for his usage of fast paced editing, in scenes like this one in
Hot Fuzz (2007), these quick cuts are used to show the rush that the characters
went through getting their guns prepared. The other way is the opposite of
this, it’s slow cuts, this is done to show many things. Intimacy, boredom,
these are just a few examples. However the example I will look at is used in an
action film, Inglorious Bastards (2009) to be precise, the slow paced editing
is used to create tension between the two parties, and build suspense right up
to the final gun fight.
Functions Of Editing For Film And Television
Create
Narrative:
-Creating motivation to further the narrative (motivated
editing): This is when shots are carefully selected in an aim to make the audience believe what they are saying and to push the story along. A good example of this is when a character enters a room, the shot after may be a POV shot of that same character in the room looking around. This would be done so that the audience can see exactly what the character would be seeing and thus engross them in the story even more. In short, motivated editing is a way to keep audiences invested and interested in the film throughout and less likely to watch actively and more so passively. On the aspect of engrossing audiences, scenes like this one in Harry Potter And The Deathly Hallows Part 2 (2011), engross and interest audiences as we see many character looking happy, especially Voldemort, as they don't mind seeing Harry, the protagonist we've been rooting for dead, and as we see other characters we consider nice or good looking sad and upset, and the fact that Harry is dead, audiences begin to feel sad as we've been cutting between shots of each characters facial expressions and it essentially leads us to that feeling in the outcome.
-Development Of Drama: Editing can be used to develop stories as well as what is seen on screen. Slow paced editing, as talked about in the last point, can be used to build tension and drama. Another way to develop drama is to cut between action shots and reaction shots, this shows how characters react to these situations they're put in, thus developing both our understanding of the characters and developing the plot/the drama. A great example of when this has been used is in Saving Private Ryan (1998), in this scene there are lots of shots of action, whether it be guns shooting, explosions, etc, and there are often cuts to certain characters reactions to this action. For example right at the end of the clip when the grenades are thrown into the tank, one soldier looks scared, this furthers our narrative understanding that A, this is a dangerous situation, and B, said soldier isn't necessarily the bravest.
-Providing And Withholding Information: As for withholding information, this is often done in an aim to add an aspect of mystery, it's often used in murder mysteries, horrors, etc. It can be done via simply not showing us, for example, who killed someone, or it can be more subtle, there could be a scene where someone whispers something to someone but the audio is edited in a way that disables audiences from being able to hear what was said, thus adding both an element of suspicion and also a question of what was said. Series' tend to do this more often than films since they need to keep audiences on the edge of their seats to keep them watching every week, Eastenders (1985-), does it quite well, when Archie is killed by the statue, all we see is the statue falling and Archies head, this way we have no idea who actually intended to murder him, yet we are very intrigued and want to know who did. This is a great example of how withholding information can be very useful. When it comes to providing information, this can be done many ways, whether it be through visual or audio cues. Both are arguably as equally useful as one another. Providing information is more commonly dome towards the end of movies, since if all/a lot of information was given to us straight away we may be able to predict, or generally just know what's about to happen. Again, using the example of murder mysteries, whilst the information is withheld throughout, at the end, when the detective has worked out the murder and pieced together the clues, then the information is told to us in full. It enables our questions to be answered and doesn't necessarily leave us with a sour taste after the film due to not knowing. In this scene in Murder On The Orient Express (2017) the information is provided to us by both the detective and the woman who planned the murder, The information is given to us both audibly (it is told to us) and visually (There is non-continuity editing flashback to show us what happened)
Create Continuity Between Shots:
Following The Action- Typically in action scenes, there is lots of fast paced edits and cuts. In this example from Mr & Mrs Smith (2005), there are a variety of editing techniques used to follow the action, theres POV shots to give the viewpoint of the characters as they look for the other person and there's slow motion when Jane slides across the floor. Both of these techniques follow the action, the slow motion puts emphasis on Jane's slide, and the two guns in her hand, and the POV shots enable us to see through the eyes of Jane as she looks for John/the action. Also the constant cuts between both characters enables us to know where both are at all times, meaning we know where the action is and where it could come from at almost any time.
Changing Location- Changing location via editing can be done both audibly and visually. Visually is the more common way of doing it. Usually it's just done by simple cutting to a long/establishing shot of the new location, sometimes there'll be text on the screen that tells us where this location is, regardless this is a pretty good way of changing locations. When it comes to the audible way of changing location, this ties in with visuals, but the way it tells us where this location is, is through audio cues, like music that is reminiscent of a certain location, or perhaps a character will say a location and then it'll instantly cut to a new location so that we can make the assumption this new location is where the character just stated.
Changing Timeline - This can be done in many ways, most commonly, flashbacks. However this only temporarily changes the timeline for a brief minute or two as we see into the past, usually from a characters perspective. The other way this can be done is simply by changing it, a very good example where they just changed the timeline is Avengers: Endgame (2019), after Thor slices Thanos' head off we skip ahead 5 years in time and see where the avengers are now. Time is a very big plot point in this film, the characters all go back in time to different timelines, this is another example of how time can be changed, it's obviously only really used in sci-fi and other similar genres of film which are likely to have a time machine/the ability to go back in time. Back To The Future (1985) also does time travel. There is of course more to changing timeline than just going back in time, there is also the times where people travel into the future. The Time Machine (1960) shows this. The changing of timeline is done simply for the plot, and never usually anything else.
Create Audience Reaction And Engage The Viewer:
Creating Suspense - Suspense is very important for gaining and keeping viewers interest. Horror films tend to do this a lot, the reason they do this is to build tension so that when a jump scare occurs it has more effect on the viewers. Jaws (1975) also does this well by having a POV shot of the shark swimming up to the surface. What makes this scene so tense is the trademark Jaws theme and the slow editing. The time the shark spends swimming upwards is all being used to build tension and suspense, right up to the final moment where he reaches the surface and thus the child. Building suspense is quintessential for viewer engagement.
Creating Pace - Pace can easily be manipulated by editing, Long drawn out, slow cuts will make the scene slow, whereas fast paced quick cuts will speed up the scene making it more tense and fun. Typically action scenes tend to be the more fast paced style, with examples like John Wick (2014) and Deadpool (2016), both of these have well choreographed fights with many different quick cuts to show different camera angles/viewpoints. This is so that we can see the fight in it's entirety but also to make it seem like a much more fast paced, life or death, tense situation. In terms of creating slow pace, this is done by having long lasting shots, they're usually used in scenes of intimacy, for instance in The Change Up (2011), this scene uses lot's of slow shots to imitate how calm the conversation becomes and how close they become. Or they can be used in sad scenes to slow down the pace so that we solely focus on the sad element of the scene and we, and the characters, have time to grieve.
Create Meaning:
Juxtaposing Elements Within Editing - Juxtaposition is quite common in films, most commonly is the type of juxtaposition that involves us seeing one character doing whatever they're doing and often switching to see what another character is doing, this shows us two different sides to the same story in one scene.
Creating Empathy With A Character - This can be done in many ways, slow motion is a good example, even long cuts can be used to create empathy. These are usually done in scene where said characters are sad about something. The example I am using is in Selma (2015), As soon as Jimmie is shot it switches to slow motion, this enables us as audiences to feel sad as he was a likable character but also to empathise with his mum who is seen crawling towards him crying, in shock. The slow motion helps us to take in what's just happened and think about how devastating it is. Thus saddening us more.
Creating Bias In Fiction Or Documentary Editing - Bias is more often than not present in films, whether it be fiction or non-fiction. Fiction wise, Bias can change the way a Person is represented in a film, for instance if a characters morals and values don't match a particular person (Writer/director)'s then they may be shown in a different light, perhaps their may be music that creates a sinister, or at least not friendly tone in an aim to make people assume their morals, etc are the cause of this evilness. Non-fiction wise, it is more common to see bias. Propaganda is the most common form of bias. Almost every piece of propaganda will describe and show the 'enemy' in a negative light. That's not to say it doesn't happen in modern day documentaries. The documentary may only show scenes of a certain group of people doing things considered 'socially unacceptable' or illegal, and not showing them doing any good.
A2 Applications Of Editing Techniques
Editing Techniques For Film And Television:
Establishing Shot - Establishing shots are used to set up scenes and show viewers the location the scene will take place in. The beginning of Scream (1996) has an establishing shot of the house, this sets up the scene, and makes us aware that all shots inside will be inside this particular house. There are also other elements added to these establishing shots, Foreshadowing, Mood Setting, these are other things that this establishing shot provides. The swing that is swinging despite noone being on it foreshadows that someone else is nearby, and a creepy mood is set due to the dark, blue, cold lighting of the night sky. So in conclusion, establishing shots can provide us with lots of information for the scene ahead of us.
Cutaways And Cut-ins - Cutaways are when in the middle of a scene, the camera will cutaway to show something else, usually what is shown has some relevance and importance, An American Werewolf In London (1981) does this. This cutaway is done to switch up whats on screen, this is arguably needed because we've been watching him transform for a few minutes. Also the cutaway has relevance to the character so it's not like it's completely uncalled for. Cut-ins are when the scene is playing out and the camera essentially zooms into something within the frame, but cuts out the zoom part, this is done to put emphasis on something that is onscreen and show it in more detail. This example I found on youtube shows a cut in shot well.
30 Degree Rule - The 30 degree rule states that the camera should move at least 30 degrees between successive shots, this is because if it doesn't the change in shot could look too subtle and end up becoming distracting and quite frankly not looking right. This rule tends to be considered more in interviews, this is because the editor may want to switch between different shots so that the interview isn't all one shot and mundane. This example on youtube shows the differences between following and not following the 30 degree angle.
Jump Cutting - Jump cuts are the most common type of cut, infact its quite rare to see any other kind of cut, perhaps unless you're watching George Lucas' Star Wars, in which it's more common to see Wipe transitions. However, as for jump cuts, they're as simple as simply cutting from one shot to another. They feel natural so don't break a viewers engagement in the film. This example in The Royal Tenenbaums (2001) shows how effective jump cuts are despite being so simple. This example shows that time can be passed using just a jump cut and not always fades and other transitions.
Shot/Reverse Shot - This is typically used when two characters are conversing, this scene in Spider Man (2002) has a shot/reverse shot between Norman Osborn and his mirrored self, this example is done in a quick mannered way which seems to give off an evil vibe, which is what was being attempted since this is essentially Norman coming to the decision to be evil.
180 Degree Rule - this is a rule that states that the camera shouldn't pass a line during a scene, this is so that characters stay on either side of the screen, for instance a conversation between two characters (A and B) if the scene starts with A on the left side of the screen and B on the right, then for the entire scene they should remain on these sides, this is achievable by not passing that 180 degree line. If the line is crossed it can disorientate the viewers, hence it is often followed to keep a sense of orientation. Heat (1995) has a good example of this line being followed, both actors are always on the same side of the screen, it gives off a sense of formality and, as i said, orientation. However this rule can sometimes be broken purposefully, the most famous example is in The Shining (1980), the camera essentially moves from one side of the toilet to another, switching the characters sides on screen. This is done to disorientate the viewers since this scene is honestly quite odd.
Eyeline Matching - Eyeline matching is when a characters eyes are at the same level as something else that is visible in the successive shot, whether it be another person or an object. The reason for this is so that viewers can make the assumption that the character is looking at the subject in the next shot, if the object/person wasn't on the characters eyeline match then it could suggest he isn't looking at that subject, it could just happen to be in the shot. This scene in Star Wars: The Phantom Menace (1999) shows eye line match between both Obi Wan and the lightsaber and Obi Wan and Darth Maul, showing both times the subject he is looking at.
Match On Action - Match on action shots are when a shot will cut to an action happening, leaving viewers to assume the action. In this scene in The Amazing Spider-Man (2012) there is a match on action cut at the end, spider-man says he's going to throw Gwen out the window, and then we instantly cut to Gwen being thrown out the window, as viewers we are able to make the assumption that Spider-man threw her out of the window.
Continuity Editing - Continuity editing is essentially fluent, smooth editing that doesn't distract the viewer and is seamless. This example in Back To The Future (1985) shows how smooth continuity editing can make a scene seem.
Montage - Montages are often used when changing locations, Trainspotting (1996) does this well, this montage of London not only tells us that Renton has located to London, but it also gives us a brief overview of what London is like and sets the scene almost. Essentially montages show a series of shots in very quick succession to compress time.
Juxtaposition (Kuleshov Effect) - The kuleshov effect originated from Lev Kuleshov, a film theorist and maker, he demonstrated this effect in the 1910's and 20's, he showed footage of a man looking with little emotion on his face, and followed it with a picture of some food, then showed the mans face again, this made him look hungry to viewers as they put the two images together. He repeated this process with a dead child and he looked to be grieving despite it being the same image of him as before, and then again with a woman and he looked longing for this womans love. This effect is used today in modern cinema, it is usually paired with a cutaway, that way we can see the object and then put that object and the characters expression/look together to piece together their response. In modern cinema this theory is used to create relationships between shots that otherwise may not be so easily put together.
Cross Cutting - The most famous example of cross cutting is in The Silence Of The Lambs (1991), in this scene we keep cross cutting between Buffalo Bill and the police, the way it's cutting between them both makes us believe their two stories are about to collide at the final climax, however as you can tell that's not the case. Cross cutting's main aim is to connect two different stories that are happening simultaneously, usually these stories will interlink somehow at some point.
Parallel Editing - This example in American Sniper (2015) shows parallel editing, there are 2 scenes playing out, there's the snipers scene, and the big group's scene, we aren't aware if these are playing out at the same time since they don't come to any narrative collision. But the constant shift between scenes suggests they are somewhat related, thus leaving audiences with assumptions such as: the sniper is in the same militant group as the big group, etc. It's main purpose is to enforce thought within viewers and allow for assumption and connection to be made.
Freeze Frame - Freeze Frame's aren't the most common thing in films, or tv shows, however when they are used, it's usually to allow for viewers to take in what is on screen, and show us the happenings in greater depth. Deadpool (2016)'s opening scene has a good freeze frame, It works well in introducing us to Deadpool as a character since we can see his method's of attacking these people, and his jokey personality even just from the freeze frame.
Slow Motion - Slow motion, much like freeze frames is often used to put emphasis on something on screen, for instance in Selma (2015) after Jimmie is shot the slow motion puts emphasis on his mother and his own reaction. We get to see the fear in Jimmie's face much more vividly than if it all moved in normal speed, the same applies to his mother's desperation and sadness.
Split Screen - This is usually done to compare and contrast two, or more, different scenes/shots. Kill Bill (2003)'s split screen scene compares what both of these characters are doing, that being how The Bride is lying on a hospital bed unconscious, and Elle is preparing to kill her. This shows us the immediate threat that The Bride will be facing soon enough. It gives viewers a chance to keep up to date with what's going on (at the same time) simultaneously so that we're never lost or confused.
Wipes - As I stated earlier, George Lucas love's a wipe, you'd know if you've ever seen any of the original 3 star wars films, Wipes are simply just a more visual way of changing scene, Not only do they simply change scene but they can infer a change in time and location.
Dissolves - Much like wipes, they don't just change scene, they can infer a change in time and location, although dissolves are more likely to be used for changing time, like in this example. It makes it seem as if a passage of time has occurred, usually the dissolves that show a passage in time will show the same subject before and after the passage of time. It can also be used to 'get inside a characters head' and make it seem as though its dissolving into their thoughts.
Fades - Fades are used to put an end to a scene and usually infer a passage of time has occured. Usually when a fade happens it'll fade to black, this is simply just the norm, however fading to white can have a more meaningful, deeper reason, such as if a light onscreen shine on the camera it may fade into white, that white representing the bright light.
-Providing And Withholding Information: As for withholding information, this is often done in an aim to add an aspect of mystery, it's often used in murder mysteries, horrors, etc. It can be done via simply not showing us, for example, who killed someone, or it can be more subtle, there could be a scene where someone whispers something to someone but the audio is edited in a way that disables audiences from being able to hear what was said, thus adding both an element of suspicion and also a question of what was said. Series' tend to do this more often than films since they need to keep audiences on the edge of their seats to keep them watching every week, Eastenders (1985-), does it quite well, when Archie is killed by the statue, all we see is the statue falling and Archies head, this way we have no idea who actually intended to murder him, yet we are very intrigued and want to know who did. This is a great example of how withholding information can be very useful. When it comes to providing information, this can be done many ways, whether it be through visual or audio cues. Both are arguably as equally useful as one another. Providing information is more commonly dome towards the end of movies, since if all/a lot of information was given to us straight away we may be able to predict, or generally just know what's about to happen. Again, using the example of murder mysteries, whilst the information is withheld throughout, at the end, when the detective has worked out the murder and pieced together the clues, then the information is told to us in full. It enables our questions to be answered and doesn't necessarily leave us with a sour taste after the film due to not knowing. In this scene in Murder On The Orient Express (2017) the information is provided to us by both the detective and the woman who planned the murder, The information is given to us both audibly (it is told to us) and visually (There is non-continuity editing flashback to show us what happened)
Create Continuity Between Shots:
Following The Action- Typically in action scenes, there is lots of fast paced edits and cuts. In this example from Mr & Mrs Smith (2005), there are a variety of editing techniques used to follow the action, theres POV shots to give the viewpoint of the characters as they look for the other person and there's slow motion when Jane slides across the floor. Both of these techniques follow the action, the slow motion puts emphasis on Jane's slide, and the two guns in her hand, and the POV shots enable us to see through the eyes of Jane as she looks for John/the action. Also the constant cuts between both characters enables us to know where both are at all times, meaning we know where the action is and where it could come from at almost any time.
Changing Location- Changing location via editing can be done both audibly and visually. Visually is the more common way of doing it. Usually it's just done by simple cutting to a long/establishing shot of the new location, sometimes there'll be text on the screen that tells us where this location is, regardless this is a pretty good way of changing locations. When it comes to the audible way of changing location, this ties in with visuals, but the way it tells us where this location is, is through audio cues, like music that is reminiscent of a certain location, or perhaps a character will say a location and then it'll instantly cut to a new location so that we can make the assumption this new location is where the character just stated.
Changing Timeline - This can be done in many ways, most commonly, flashbacks. However this only temporarily changes the timeline for a brief minute or two as we see into the past, usually from a characters perspective. The other way this can be done is simply by changing it, a very good example where they just changed the timeline is Avengers: Endgame (2019), after Thor slices Thanos' head off we skip ahead 5 years in time and see where the avengers are now. Time is a very big plot point in this film, the characters all go back in time to different timelines, this is another example of how time can be changed, it's obviously only really used in sci-fi and other similar genres of film which are likely to have a time machine/the ability to go back in time. Back To The Future (1985) also does time travel. There is of course more to changing timeline than just going back in time, there is also the times where people travel into the future. The Time Machine (1960) shows this. The changing of timeline is done simply for the plot, and never usually anything else.
Create Audience Reaction And Engage The Viewer:
Creating Suspense - Suspense is very important for gaining and keeping viewers interest. Horror films tend to do this a lot, the reason they do this is to build tension so that when a jump scare occurs it has more effect on the viewers. Jaws (1975) also does this well by having a POV shot of the shark swimming up to the surface. What makes this scene so tense is the trademark Jaws theme and the slow editing. The time the shark spends swimming upwards is all being used to build tension and suspense, right up to the final moment where he reaches the surface and thus the child. Building suspense is quintessential for viewer engagement.
Creating Pace - Pace can easily be manipulated by editing, Long drawn out, slow cuts will make the scene slow, whereas fast paced quick cuts will speed up the scene making it more tense and fun. Typically action scenes tend to be the more fast paced style, with examples like John Wick (2014) and Deadpool (2016), both of these have well choreographed fights with many different quick cuts to show different camera angles/viewpoints. This is so that we can see the fight in it's entirety but also to make it seem like a much more fast paced, life or death, tense situation. In terms of creating slow pace, this is done by having long lasting shots, they're usually used in scenes of intimacy, for instance in The Change Up (2011), this scene uses lot's of slow shots to imitate how calm the conversation becomes and how close they become. Or they can be used in sad scenes to slow down the pace so that we solely focus on the sad element of the scene and we, and the characters, have time to grieve.
Create Meaning:
Juxtaposing Elements Within Editing - Juxtaposition is quite common in films, most commonly is the type of juxtaposition that involves us seeing one character doing whatever they're doing and often switching to see what another character is doing, this shows us two different sides to the same story in one scene.
Creating Empathy With A Character - This can be done in many ways, slow motion is a good example, even long cuts can be used to create empathy. These are usually done in scene where said characters are sad about something. The example I am using is in Selma (2015), As soon as Jimmie is shot it switches to slow motion, this enables us as audiences to feel sad as he was a likable character but also to empathise with his mum who is seen crawling towards him crying, in shock. The slow motion helps us to take in what's just happened and think about how devastating it is. Thus saddening us more.
Creating Bias In Fiction Or Documentary Editing - Bias is more often than not present in films, whether it be fiction or non-fiction. Fiction wise, Bias can change the way a Person is represented in a film, for instance if a characters morals and values don't match a particular person (Writer/director)'s then they may be shown in a different light, perhaps their may be music that creates a sinister, or at least not friendly tone in an aim to make people assume their morals, etc are the cause of this evilness. Non-fiction wise, it is more common to see bias. Propaganda is the most common form of bias. Almost every piece of propaganda will describe and show the 'enemy' in a negative light. That's not to say it doesn't happen in modern day documentaries. The documentary may only show scenes of a certain group of people doing things considered 'socially unacceptable' or illegal, and not showing them doing any good.
A2 Applications Of Editing Techniques
Editing Techniques For Film And Television:
Establishing Shot - Establishing shots are used to set up scenes and show viewers the location the scene will take place in. The beginning of Scream (1996) has an establishing shot of the house, this sets up the scene, and makes us aware that all shots inside will be inside this particular house. There are also other elements added to these establishing shots, Foreshadowing, Mood Setting, these are other things that this establishing shot provides. The swing that is swinging despite noone being on it foreshadows that someone else is nearby, and a creepy mood is set due to the dark, blue, cold lighting of the night sky. So in conclusion, establishing shots can provide us with lots of information for the scene ahead of us.
Cutaways And Cut-ins - Cutaways are when in the middle of a scene, the camera will cutaway to show something else, usually what is shown has some relevance and importance, An American Werewolf In London (1981) does this. This cutaway is done to switch up whats on screen, this is arguably needed because we've been watching him transform for a few minutes. Also the cutaway has relevance to the character so it's not like it's completely uncalled for. Cut-ins are when the scene is playing out and the camera essentially zooms into something within the frame, but cuts out the zoom part, this is done to put emphasis on something that is onscreen and show it in more detail. This example I found on youtube shows a cut in shot well.
30 Degree Rule - The 30 degree rule states that the camera should move at least 30 degrees between successive shots, this is because if it doesn't the change in shot could look too subtle and end up becoming distracting and quite frankly not looking right. This rule tends to be considered more in interviews, this is because the editor may want to switch between different shots so that the interview isn't all one shot and mundane. This example on youtube shows the differences between following and not following the 30 degree angle.
Jump Cutting - Jump cuts are the most common type of cut, infact its quite rare to see any other kind of cut, perhaps unless you're watching George Lucas' Star Wars, in which it's more common to see Wipe transitions. However, as for jump cuts, they're as simple as simply cutting from one shot to another. They feel natural so don't break a viewers engagement in the film. This example in The Royal Tenenbaums (2001) shows how effective jump cuts are despite being so simple. This example shows that time can be passed using just a jump cut and not always fades and other transitions.
Shot/Reverse Shot - This is typically used when two characters are conversing, this scene in Spider Man (2002) has a shot/reverse shot between Norman Osborn and his mirrored self, this example is done in a quick mannered way which seems to give off an evil vibe, which is what was being attempted since this is essentially Norman coming to the decision to be evil.
180 Degree Rule - this is a rule that states that the camera shouldn't pass a line during a scene, this is so that characters stay on either side of the screen, for instance a conversation between two characters (A and B) if the scene starts with A on the left side of the screen and B on the right, then for the entire scene they should remain on these sides, this is achievable by not passing that 180 degree line. If the line is crossed it can disorientate the viewers, hence it is often followed to keep a sense of orientation. Heat (1995) has a good example of this line being followed, both actors are always on the same side of the screen, it gives off a sense of formality and, as i said, orientation. However this rule can sometimes be broken purposefully, the most famous example is in The Shining (1980), the camera essentially moves from one side of the toilet to another, switching the characters sides on screen. This is done to disorientate the viewers since this scene is honestly quite odd.
Eyeline Matching - Eyeline matching is when a characters eyes are at the same level as something else that is visible in the successive shot, whether it be another person or an object. The reason for this is so that viewers can make the assumption that the character is looking at the subject in the next shot, if the object/person wasn't on the characters eyeline match then it could suggest he isn't looking at that subject, it could just happen to be in the shot. This scene in Star Wars: The Phantom Menace (1999) shows eye line match between both Obi Wan and the lightsaber and Obi Wan and Darth Maul, showing both times the subject he is looking at.
Match On Action - Match on action shots are when a shot will cut to an action happening, leaving viewers to assume the action. In this scene in The Amazing Spider-Man (2012) there is a match on action cut at the end, spider-man says he's going to throw Gwen out the window, and then we instantly cut to Gwen being thrown out the window, as viewers we are able to make the assumption that Spider-man threw her out of the window.
Continuity Editing - Continuity editing is essentially fluent, smooth editing that doesn't distract the viewer and is seamless. This example in Back To The Future (1985) shows how smooth continuity editing can make a scene seem.
Montage - Montages are often used when changing locations, Trainspotting (1996) does this well, this montage of London not only tells us that Renton has located to London, but it also gives us a brief overview of what London is like and sets the scene almost. Essentially montages show a series of shots in very quick succession to compress time.
Juxtaposition (Kuleshov Effect) - The kuleshov effect originated from Lev Kuleshov, a film theorist and maker, he demonstrated this effect in the 1910's and 20's, he showed footage of a man looking with little emotion on his face, and followed it with a picture of some food, then showed the mans face again, this made him look hungry to viewers as they put the two images together. He repeated this process with a dead child and he looked to be grieving despite it being the same image of him as before, and then again with a woman and he looked longing for this womans love. This effect is used today in modern cinema, it is usually paired with a cutaway, that way we can see the object and then put that object and the characters expression/look together to piece together their response. In modern cinema this theory is used to create relationships between shots that otherwise may not be so easily put together.
Cross Cutting - The most famous example of cross cutting is in The Silence Of The Lambs (1991), in this scene we keep cross cutting between Buffalo Bill and the police, the way it's cutting between them both makes us believe their two stories are about to collide at the final climax, however as you can tell that's not the case. Cross cutting's main aim is to connect two different stories that are happening simultaneously, usually these stories will interlink somehow at some point.
Parallel Editing - This example in American Sniper (2015) shows parallel editing, there are 2 scenes playing out, there's the snipers scene, and the big group's scene, we aren't aware if these are playing out at the same time since they don't come to any narrative collision. But the constant shift between scenes suggests they are somewhat related, thus leaving audiences with assumptions such as: the sniper is in the same militant group as the big group, etc. It's main purpose is to enforce thought within viewers and allow for assumption and connection to be made.
Freeze Frame - Freeze Frame's aren't the most common thing in films, or tv shows, however when they are used, it's usually to allow for viewers to take in what is on screen, and show us the happenings in greater depth. Deadpool (2016)'s opening scene has a good freeze frame, It works well in introducing us to Deadpool as a character since we can see his method's of attacking these people, and his jokey personality even just from the freeze frame.
Slow Motion - Slow motion, much like freeze frames is often used to put emphasis on something on screen, for instance in Selma (2015) after Jimmie is shot the slow motion puts emphasis on his mother and his own reaction. We get to see the fear in Jimmie's face much more vividly than if it all moved in normal speed, the same applies to his mother's desperation and sadness.
Split Screen - This is usually done to compare and contrast two, or more, different scenes/shots. Kill Bill (2003)'s split screen scene compares what both of these characters are doing, that being how The Bride is lying on a hospital bed unconscious, and Elle is preparing to kill her. This shows us the immediate threat that The Bride will be facing soon enough. It gives viewers a chance to keep up to date with what's going on (at the same time) simultaneously so that we're never lost or confused.
Wipes - As I stated earlier, George Lucas love's a wipe, you'd know if you've ever seen any of the original 3 star wars films, Wipes are simply just a more visual way of changing scene, Not only do they simply change scene but they can infer a change in time and location.
Dissolves - Much like wipes, they don't just change scene, they can infer a change in time and location, although dissolves are more likely to be used for changing time, like in this example. It makes it seem as if a passage of time has occurred, usually the dissolves that show a passage in time will show the same subject before and after the passage of time. It can also be used to 'get inside a characters head' and make it seem as though its dissolving into their thoughts.
Fades - Fades are used to put an end to a scene and usually infer a passage of time has occured. Usually when a fade happens it'll fade to black, this is simply just the norm, however fading to white can have a more meaningful, deeper reason, such as if a light onscreen shine on the camera it may fade into white, that white representing the bright light.
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